Infectious diseases have been a persistent challenge to global health, contributing to significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. The early and accurate detection of such diseases is critical in curbing their spread and ensuring timely treatment interventions. Traditional diagnostic methods such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) are widely used for detecting infections, yet they often require complex instrumentation, skilled personnel, and prolonged processing times [1]. These limitations necessitate the development of alternative diagnostic technologies that can provide rapid, sensitive, and specific detection capabilities. Biosensors have emerged as an essential tool in this domain due to their ability to offer real-time detection, portability, and cost-effectiveness [2].

Biorecognition elements combined with physicochemical transducers in cell-type specific biosensors can be used to detect and quantify biological or chemical substances. Such devices are vital to health care, playing an important role in the diagnosis of infectious diseases including COVID-19, tuberculosis, HIV, dengue, and malaria [3]. The growing need for point-of-care (POC) diagnostics by requiring decentralized and rapid testing has been a source of huge research efforts into biosensor development. Different biosensing mechanisms, such as electrochemical, optical, piezoelectric, and nanomaterial-based methods, were developed to improve the sensitivity and specificity of detection [4].

1.1 Introduction: The Need for Early Detection of Infectious Diseases

The capacity for early detection of infectious diseases is a critical contributor to effective disease management and outbreak containment. As demonstrated by the COVID-19 residents, where rapid dispersal of a pathogen can lead to a worldwide pandemic, the need for instant and widespread testing strategies was emphasized [5]. Conventional diagnostic methods, though reliable, generally are not sensitive enough to detect disease when implemented as a point-of-care test at scale, particularly in a low-resource setting. In these settings, biosensors are a powerful alternative, providing rapid and accurate diagnostics with little laboratory resources [6].

Moreover, early infectious disease detection using biosensors can facilitate prompt clinical intervention and decrease both disease severity and mortality. Rapid diagnostic tools are especially critical in rural and underserved communities, where access to centralized laboratories is scarce. Biosensors enhance the point of care with the ability to deliver real-time results and faster clinical decision-making that may lead to better patient outcomes [7].

1.2 Development in the Biosensor Technologies in Diagnostics

The idea of biosensors was born in the 1960s when Leland C. Clark produced the first enzyme-based glucose sensor. Since then, biosensor devices have undergone continuous evolution and optimization, moving from initial multi-component detection schemes based on early sensing materials to modern-day devices that involve advanced materials and detection strategies. Advancements in biosensors have been achieved with the combination of nanotechnology, microfluidics, and artificial intelligence (AI) to permit multi-analyte detection with increased accuracy [8].

Modern biosensors leverage various detection mechanisms, including:

• Electrochemical biosensors: These sensors measure the electrical response generated by biological reactions and have been widely used for detecting viral and bacterial infections [9].
• Optical biosensors: Utilizing techniques such as fluorescence, surface plasmon resonance (SPR), and Raman spectroscopy, these biosensors provide high-resolution detection of pathogens [10].
• Nanomaterial-based biosensors: The incorporation of graphene, gold nanoparticles, and quantum dots has significantly improved biosensor sensitivity and selectivity [11].
• Wearable and point-of-care biosensors: These portable devices enable real-time monitoring and on-site disease detection, reducing diagnostic delays and healthcare costs [12].

1.3 Role of Biosensors in Global Health

The World Health Organization (WHO) has stated that strong diagnostic capacity is crucial for managing infectious disease outbreaks when answering outbreaks quickly is a matter of life or death. In the global health space, biosensors help ensure timely and precise diagnoses while being affordable, especially in low-resource environments. In developing countries, the implementation of biosensors has led to mass screening programs for infectious diseases like malaria and tuberculosis, alleviating pressure on traditional laboratory infrastructure.

Moreover, the pandemic caused by COVID-19 has stimulated the incorporation of biosensors in diagnostic pipelines, as evidenced by the novel saliva-based antigen tests and also smartphone-integrated biosensors. This Clean New Era of New Clean Sensor Energy Global Health Diagnostic

1.4 Challenges and Future Directions

Among these innovations, biosensors hold promise due to their high stability, reproducibility, and absence of regulation. A major barrier for biosensors to be widely used is the lack of standardization in their fabrication and validation. In addition, the challenges and opportunities presented by integrating biosensors with digital health systems, cloud computing, and AI.

Thereafter, we reflect on future research and the knowledge it aims to generate.

• Creation of highly selective and multiplexed biosensors for the simultaneous detection of different pathogens.
• Improving the stability and lifetime of biosensors for prolonged use.
• Regulatory Fear — Alleviating fears to promote biosensor approval & commercialization.
• Stretched biosensor applications beyond diagnostics by using real-time monitoring of disease progression and treatment response.

Many of these challenges may be met through biosensors, which have the potential to provide rapid, accurate, and low-cost point-of-care testing, revolutionizing the diagnostic landscape for infectious diseases and providing timely access to disease management.

2.1 Search Strategy

A comprehensive systematic search was conducted across four major databases—PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and IEEE Xplore—to identify peer-reviewed articles published between 2015 and 2024. The search strategy incorporated a combination of MeSH terms and keywords, including "biosensors," "infectious diseases," "early detection," "point-of-care diagnostics," and "nanotechnology-based biosensors." Boolean operators (AND, OR) were used to refine the search criteria and ensure the retrieval of relevant literature. The search was performed independently by two reviewers, and any discrepancies in the selection process were resolved through discussion.

To ensure comprehensiveness, manual searches of reference lists from relevant articles were conducted. Additionally, gray literature, including preprints and conference proceedings, was reviewed to capture emerging research trends.

2.2 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

To maintain the integrity and relevance of the systematic review, predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied.

Inclusion Criteria:

• Studies that evaluated biosensors for detecting infectious diseases in clinical, laboratory, or point-of-care settings.
• Research focusing on the sensitivity, specificity, and reliability of biosensor-based diagnostic methods.
• Peer-reviewed articles published in English between 2015 and 2024.
• Studies incorporating novel biosensor technologies, including nanomaterials, microfluidics, and AI-driven diagnostics.

Exclusion Criteria:

• Studies focusing on biosensors for non-infectious diseases.
• Articles lacking experimental validation or clinical application.
• Review articles, opinion pieces, and editorials.
• Non-English language studies.

2.3 Study Selection Process

The study selection was conducted through a three-stage screening process:

1. 1 Title Screening: Initial article screening was based on the articles' titles. At this stage, irrelevant studies were excluded.
2. Abstract review: The abstracts from the remaining articles were evaluated according to our selection criteria.
3. Full-Text Assessment: Retrieved full-text articles that fulfilled the eligibility criteria were evaluated in-depth, and studies that met the final inclusion criteria were selected for inclusion in the review.

Inter-rater reliability was assessed by measuring the level of general agreement between the two independent reviewers using Cohen’s kappa coefficient and yielded a value of 0.85, reflecting high concordance between reviewers.

2.4 Data Extraction

An extraction form for collecting relevant data from each included study was designed in a structured manner. The data points extracted included the following:

• Study design and setting
• Technique used (electrochemical, optical, nanomaterial, etc.)
• Infectious disease targeted
• Sensitivity, specificity, and detection limit
• Advantages and limitations
• Translational potential

Data extraction was conducted in duplicate by two reviewers, and verified for consistency. Differences were worked out by consensus.

2.5 Quality Assessment

Data were extracted and assessed for the quality of included studies using the QUADAS-2 (Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies) tool. Studies were assessed in four domains:

1. Patient Selection: Appropriateness of participant recruitment.
2. Index Test: Adequacy of biosensor performance evaluation.
3. Reference Standard: Comparison with conventional diagnostic methods.
4. Flow and Timing: Completeness of follow-up data.

Each study was categorized as having a low, high, or unclear risk of bias. Studies with a high risk of bias were excluded from the final analysis.

2.6 PRISMA Flowchart

The PRISMA flowchart ensures transparency in the study selection process, allowing reproducibility of the review methodology.

3.1 Overview of Included Studies

The 49 included studies examined various biosensor technologies for detecting infectious diseases, focusing on their sensitivity, specificity, and real-world applications. The reviewed studies covered electrochemical, optical, nanomaterial-based, and point-of-care (POC) biosensors, demonstrating significant improvements in early detection methods. The application of these biosensors ranged from detecting viral infections like COVID-19, influenza, and HIV to bacterial infections such as tuberculosis and sepsis [13-17].

3.2 Types of Biosensors for Infectious Disease Detection

3.2.1 Electrochemical Biosensors

Electrochemical biosensors are among the most widely studied for infectious disease detection due to their high sensitivity and rapid response time. These biosensors detect target pathogens by measuring electrical signals generated from biochemical reactions. Studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of electrochemical biosensors in detecting SARS-CoV-2, dengue virus, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis with high specificity and minimal sample preparation requirements [18-22].

3.2.2 Optical Biosensors

Optical biosensors utilize fluorescence, surface plasmon resonance (SPR), and Raman spectroscopy to detect pathogens with high precision. These biosensors have been extensively used for detecting viral and bacterial infections by analyzing biomolecular interactions in real time. Recent advancements in optical biosensors have improved their portability and reduced assay time, making them suitable for field applications in resource-limited settings [23-26].

3.2.3 Nanomaterial-Based Biosensors

Nanotechnology has revolutionized biosensor development by enhancing detection limits and specificity. Gold nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, and quantum dots have been integrated into biosensors to improve their performance. Studies have shown that nanomaterial-based biosensors can detect minute concentrations of viral RNA, making them highly effective for early disease diagnosis [27-30].

3.2.4 Point-of-Care (POC) Biosensors

POC biosensors are designed for rapid, on-site diagnostics, eliminating the need for sophisticated laboratory equipment. These biosensors have played a crucial role in COVID-19 diagnostics, allowing for rapid antigen and antibody testing. Research has highlighted their utility in low-resource settings, where access to centralized laboratories is limited [31-34].

3.3 Biosensor Applications in Specific Infectious Diseases

3.4 Sensitivity and Specificity of Biosensors

One of the key advantages of biosensors is their ability to provide high sensitivity and specificity for detecting infectious agents. Recent studies have reported sensitivity levels exceeding 95% for electrochemical and optical biosensors used in COVID-19 detection, while nanomaterial-based biosensors have demonstrated near 100% specificity for detecting malaria and tuberculosis biomarkers [35-38].

3.5 Integration with Digital Health Technologies

Increased biosensor technology has facilitated their use in digital health infrastructure for real-time monitoring and remote diagnostics. Using these, AI-driven biosensors, smartphone detection systems, and cloud diagnostic tools have all emerged as vital innovations in infectious disease management. Indeed, multiple studies show the significant impact of amalgamating biosensors with AI algorithms for an advanced integrated approach for recognizing patterns and performing predictive analytics of disease outbreaks [39-42].

3.6 Challenges and Limitations

Although many advances have been made, there are still challenges limiting the uptake of biosensors in the diagnostic landscape for infectious diseases. These challenges include:

• Stability / Shelf Life: For several biosensors, rigorous storage conditions are needed for them to remain functional over time [43].
• Cost and Accessibility: Sophisticated biosensor technologies can be expensive to manufacture, restricting their application in low-income areas [44].
• Issues Related to Standardization and Regulation: Prior to commercial use, biosensors have to satisfy standards of regulation that are time-consuming and result in their delayed acceptance [45].
• Interference/Cross-Reactivity: False-positive/false-negative results have been observed in some biosensors when non-target molecules cross-react.

3.7 Future Prospects and Innovations

Future-based research should target the constraints of current biosensors’ technologies while improving their clinical usage ability. Potential directions for continued development include:

• Generation of multiplexed biosensors for simultaneous detection of multiple pathogens
• AI-based diagnostic tools to improve the performance and accuracy of biosensors
• Development of micro-biosensors for wearable and implanted diagnostic usages.
• Use of biosensors in global health programs addressing emerging infectious threats and accelerating pandemics.

Biosensors have transformed the landscape of infectious disease diagnostics, enabling faster, more accurate, and cost-effective testing solutions. Their integration with digital health platforms and artificial intelligence (AI) has significantly enhanced disease surveillance and epidemiological tracking. This section explores key advancements, limitations, real-world applications, and future directions for biosensor technology in infectious disease detection.

4.1 Advancements in Biosensor Technology

The past decade has seen remarkable improvements in biosensor design and functionality. Notably, nanomaterial-based biosensors have enhanced sensitivity and specificity, leveraging graphene, gold nanoparticles, and quantum dots to detect pathogens at ultra-low concentrations. Electrochemical biosensors, known for their rapid detection capabilities, have demonstrated efficiency in identifying SARS-CoV-2, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and Plasmodium falciparum. Meanwhile, optical biosensors, incorporating surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and fluorescence-based methods, offer real-time pathogen detection, further improving diagnostic timelines [44].

Progress in wearable biosensors allows real-time, non-invasive monitoring of infectious diseases, incorporating smart textiles, and nanofiber membranes along with wireless connectivity for constant data collection Such advances are especially valuable for disease screening and epidemiological modeling [45]. Moreover, CRISPR-based biosensors have transformed nucleic acid detection and enabled high specificity of viral RNA and DNA sequence identification in several minutes [46].

4.2 Challenges and Limitations

Biosensors have great potential, but they are confronted with numerous technical and regulatory challenges. One of the main issues to be taken into account is sensitivity and specificity; biosensors have to differentiate not only between similar pathogen strains but also between false positive and negative results [47]. Moreover, stability and reproducibility are major challenges, especially for biosensors that employ biological recognition elements (such as antibodies, and enzymes), whose functionality eventually diminishes.

A second limitation relates to cost and scalability. Biosensors hold promise for decentralized diagnostics; however, the process of large-scale production and distribution of biosensors requires large quantities of investment. One major challenge is integration with existing healthcare infrastructures—especially in low-resource settings [48]. Additional hurdles, such as regulatory approvals and standardization, exist in the widespread adoption of biosensors, which must fulfill rigorous requirements for clinical usage.

4.3 Real-World Applications

The COVID-19 pandemic underscored the importance of biosensor-driven diagnostics in mitigating disease spread. The rapid development of antigen and nucleic acid-based biosensors enabled large-scale testing with minimal laboratory dependency. Biosensors also played a crucial role in detecting other respiratory illnesses, such as influenza and tuberculosis, reducing diagnostic delays and improving patient outcomes.

In resource-limited settings, portable biosensors have revolutionized disease detection for malaria, dengue, and HIV. These point-of-care (POC) devices have significantly improved diagnostic accessibility, particularly in rural healthcare centers lacking advanced laboratory infrastructure. In hospitals and emergency rooms, biosensors facilitate rapid decision-making, expediting treatment protocols and minimizing disease transmission risks [49].

4.4 Future Directions

The future of biosensor technology lies in multifunctional, AI-integrated platforms capable of real-time, multiplexed pathogen detection. Researchers are exploring biosensor chips embedded in smartphones to enable at-home disease screening, a breakthrough that could transform infectious disease diagnostics. Additionally, the convergence of nanotechnology, microfluidics, and AI promises further enhancements in biosensor efficiency, automation, and data interpretation.

The development of universal biosensors—devices capable of detecting multiple pathogens simultaneously—represents a significant research focus. Such innovations could streamline diagnostic workflows, allowing rapid differentiation between bacterial, viral, and fungal infections. Wearable biosensors are also poised for greater adoption, with real-time disease monitoring systems integrated into smartwatches and contact lenses.

Regulatory frameworks must evolve to support biosensor deployment in clinical practice. Harmonization of global standards will be essential to accelerate regulatory approvals, ensuring biosensors meet performance and safety benchmarks across diverse healthcare systems [50].

Biosensors have emerged as indispensable tools in the early detection of infectious diseases, offering rapid, sensitive, and cost-effective solutions. While challenges related to sensitivity, stability, and scalability persist, continued research and technological innovations hold immense promise. The integration of AI, CRISPR-based detection, and wearable biosensors will likely shape the future of infectious disease diagnostics, improving global healthcare outcomes.

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