Comparison of Anaesthetic Modalities and Potential Impact on Cancer Outcomes

Cancer remains a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, accounting for nearly 10 million deaths annually [1]. While surgical resection continues to be a primary modality in curative cancer treatment, a growing body of literature suggests that perioperative factors—including anaesthesia type—can significantly influence cancer recurrence and long-term outcomes [2,3]. Historically, the choice of anaesthetic during oncologic surgery was based solely on the safety and efficiency of the drug. However, contemporary research suggests that anaesthetic agents may directly or indirectly impact tumor biology, immune surveillance, angiogenesis, and systemic inflammation, thereby altering recurrence and survival rates [4].

Several experimental studies have demonstrated that anaesthetic agents can exert immunomodulatory effects that influence the fate of circulating tumour cells (CTCs) released during surgical manipulation [5]. For instance, the perioperative period is marked by a transient immunosuppressive state due to surgical stress, pain, and neuroendocrine responses. Anaesthetic choice may either mitigate or exacerbate this immunosuppression [6,7]. This immunologic window is critical, as it coincides with the potential seeding of metastases, making perioperative immune status a key determinant of long-term outcomes [8].

Inhalation anaesthetics (isoflurane, desflurane and sevoflurane) stimulate the pathways of hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs), which in turn upregulate the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), and promote angiogenesis and metastasis [9]. In addition, volatile anaesthetics are known to inhibit natural killer (NK) cell function, one of the major defence mechanisms against tumour dissemination [10]. On the contrary, intravenous agents, such as propofol, are reported to have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties that may protect immune function and hinder tumour growth [11,12]. Propofol has also been shown to downregulate HIF-1α, MMP-9, and VEGF in several different in vitro models, reducing tumor invasiveness and angiogenesis [13].

However, the application of regional anaesthesia (e.g., spinal, epidural or paravertebral blocks) has emerged as an appealing alternative for the limitation of the use of systemic opioids and/or general anaesthetics, both of which could impair immune efficiency [14]. Regional techniques also attenuate the neuroendocrine stress response to surgery, thereby preserving immune surveillance mechanisms [15]. In breast and prostate cancer surgeries, regional approaches have been associated with decreased recurrence rates in observational studies, but RCTs have yielded conflicting results [16,17].

The clinical implications of anaesthetic choice are not only viewed in the theoretical or experimental field, they are also addressed particularly in retrospective and prospective study settings. Retrospective data from multicohort analyses indicate a trend towards both better overall and disease-free survival in patients treated with total intravenous anaesthesia (TIVA) based on propofol rather than volatile agents [18]. Nonetheless, while the evidence is encouraging, the results have been inconsistent both across cancer types and study designs, underscoring the need for well-powered RCTs to confirm such associations [19].

This systematic review aims to provide a comprehensive evaluation of current literature examining the role of anaesthesia in modulating cancer recurrence and patient outcomes. The review will synthesize preclinical findings, clinical observational studies, and randomized controlled trials, with a focus on mechanisms of action, cancer-specific effects, and future directions in oncologic anaesthesia. Of mortality worldwide, with surgical intervention being a cornerstone of curative treatment. Increasing attention has been directed toward perioperative factors that may influence tumour biology and recurrence. Among these, anaesthetic agents and techniques used during cancer surgery have emerged as potential modulators of cancer-related outcomes. Experimental and clinical studies have proposed that anaesthetics can impact immune surveillance, inflammation, angiogenesis, and the dissemination of circulating tumour cells. This review aims to critically assess the existing literature on how anaesthetic modality may affect cancer recurrence and overall survival.

This systematic review was conducted following PRISMA 2020 guidelines to ensure comprehensive and transparent reporting. Our objective was to evaluate the impact of anaesthetic techniques on cancer recurrence and patient outcomes.

Search Strategy A comprehensive literature search was conducted utilizing the PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases, including studies up to March 2024 from January 2000. Search terms were: “anaesthesia AND cancer recurrence”, “propofol AND survival”, “volatile anaesthetics AND tumour progression”, and “regional anaesthesia AND metastasis”. Other searches were restricted to humans and English-language abstracts.

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria Studies were included if:

• Explored anaesthetic practices during solid tumors surgeries.
• Cancer-specific outcomes (recurrence, progression, or survival)
• Randomized controlled trials, prospective or retrospective cohort studies, or systematic reviews/meta-analyses.

We excluded:

• Non-comparative studies.
• Editorials; case reports; and conference abstracts
• Animal or in vitro studies.

Data extraction and selection process

Two reviewers screened titles and abstracts independently for relevance. In case of disagreement consensus or input from a third reviewer was sought. Eligibility was assessed using full texts. The extracted outcomes were study design, sample size, type of anaesthesia, type of cancer, outcome measured, and follow-up period.

Quality Assessment

The quality of RCTs was evaluated using the Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool. Observational studies were assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. Meta-analyses were appraised using the AMSTAR 2 tool.

Data Synthesis

Due to heterogeneity in study types, anaesthetic interventions, and outcome measures, a narrative synthesis was used to summarize findings by anaesthetic technique and cancer type.

PRISMA Flow Chart

Study Characteristics the 10 included studies comprised:

• 3 randomized controlled trials
• 5 retrospective cohort studies
• 2 meta-analyses

Most studies examined breast, colon, gastric, and liver cancers. Common comparisons included propofol-based TIVA versus volatile anaesthetics and general versus regional anaesthesia.

Ethical Considerations

This review utilized publicly available literature and did not require ethical approval. Studies were assessed for ethical conduct as part of quality appraisal.

Limitations

Our findings are limited by study heterogeneity, potential selection bias, and the predominance of observational data. Differences in follow-up durations, anaesthetic protocols, and cancer staging further challenge result generalization. This systematic review was conducted following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 guidelines to ensure transparency and methodological rigor. We developed a comprehensive protocol and search strategy to identify studies examining the influence of anaesthetic techniques on cancer recurrence and survival outcomes.

Search Strategy

Electronic databases including PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science were systematically searched for literature published between January 2000 and March 2024. Keywords used included: "anaesthesia and cancer recurrence," "volatile anaesthetics," "propofol and tumour progression," "regional anaesthesia," and "surgical oncology outcomes." Additional sources were identified through manual searches of references in relevant studies.

Eligibility Criteria

Included studies met the following criteria:

• Involved adult patients undergoing oncologic surgery;
• Compared different anaesthetic techniques (intravenous, volatile, regional, or combined);
• Reported outcomes related to cancer recurrence, progression, or survival;
• Were randomized controlled trials, cohort studies, or meta-analyses published in English.

Exclusion criteria:

• Studies unrelated to anaesthetic technique;
• Case reports, commentaries, or conference abstracts;
• Animal or laboratory-only studies.

Study Selection

Two independent reviewers screened titles and abstracts for eligibility. Full texts of potentially relevant studies were retrieved and assessed. Any disagreements were resolved by discussion or consultation with a third reviewer.

Data Extraction and Quality Assessment We extracted data on study design, anaesthetic type, cancer type, primary outcomes, sample size and duration of follow up for each eligible study. Randomized trials were evaluated by using the Cochrane RoB 2 tool, and observational studies were evaluated according to the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale.

Data Synthesis Because of heterogeneity in study populations and outcome measures, meta-analysis was not possible. We conducted a narrative synthesis and grouped results by type of anaesthetic and cancer subtype.

This review included 36 studies, out of which 12 were randomized controlled trials, 18 were retrospective cohort studies, and 6 were prospective observational studies, which encompassed various types of cancer including breast, colorectal, lung, prostate, hepatocellular and ovarian cancer. The studies were heterogeneous to patient populations, anaesthetic techniques, surgical procedures, and definitions of outcome.

Propofol-based total intravenous anaesthesia

(TIVA) Propofol-based TIVA consistently correlated with improved oncological outcomes. As an example, Wigmore et al. showed that TIVA was also associated with significantly improved recurrence-free survival and overall survival in abdominal cancer surgery patients when compared to patients receiving volatile agents [20]. Analyses conducted for colorectal and hepatocellular carcinoma also showed similar results, as propofol also seemed to inhibit metastatic signaling pathways and decrease pro-inflammatory cytokines [21,22]. A prospective study evaluating propofol for breast cancer demonstrated that intraoperative propofol use during breast surgery maintained post-operative natural killer (NK) cell activity which is essential to prevent the development of micrometastases [23].

Volatile Anaesthesia and Cancer Outcomes

 In contrast, volatile anaesthetics such as sevoflurane and isoflurane were linked to higher levels of postoperative inflammation, lower NK cell activity, and increased recurrence rates in several retrospective studies [24]. A cohort study involving over 7,000 patients undergoing gastrointestinal cancer surgery found that volatile anaesthesia was independently associated with reduced overall survival after adjusting for confounders such as age, cancer stage, and comorbidities [25]. Animal and in vitro studies support these findings, suggesting that volatile agents may activate hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), promoting tumor angiogenesis [26].

Regional Anaesthesia Techniques

The use of regional anaesthesia (e.g., epidural, spinal, paravertebral) in conjunction with general anaesthesia was examined in 11 of the reviewed studies. These techniques were reported to reduce the neuroendocrine stress response and systemic inflammation during cancer surgeries. Observational studies on breast and prostate cancer surgeries showed a correlation between regional anaesthesia and improved recurrence-free survival [27]. However, RCTs have yielded mixed results; some did not demonstrate significant differences in recurrence or mortality outcomes, suggesting that benefits may be context- or cancer-type-specific [28].

Combination Techniques and Multimodal Approaches

Some studies explored the combined use of TIVA and regional anaesthesia. This multimodal approach was associated with reduced postoperative opioid consumption, lower inflammatory markers (e.g., IL-6, CRP), and better quality of recovery. A trial involving lung cancer patients found that those receiving both TIVA and epidural anaesthesia had improved immune cell function and significantly lower recurrence rates over a 5-year follow-up [29].

Impact by Cancer Type

• Breast Cancer: Most studies favored TIVA and/or regional techniques for improved DFS and OS, especially in luminal and HER2-negative subtypes [30].
• Colorectal Cancer: Studies were more divided, with some showing no significant differences, while others demonstrated modest survival benefits with propofol [21,31].
• Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Strong evidence supports the use of propofol in reducing recurrence and supporting hepatic immune homeostasis [22].
• Lung and Prostate Cancers: Preliminary evidence points toward benefits of regional and TIVA approaches, though high-quality RCTs are still lacking [27,29].

Summary of Quantitative Outcomes

While retrospective analyses suggest that anaesthetic choice significantly affects cancer outcomes, the current body of evidence is constrained by heterogeneity in study designs, patient demographics, and clinical practices. Despite strong signals favoring TIVA and regional techniques, more high-quality randomized trials are required to make definitive clinical recommendations.

Beyond the mechanistic underpinnings of how anaesthetic agents influence tumour biology, the discussion must also focus on clinical translation and real-world implications. The perioperative period presents a unique opportunity for therapeutic intervention because it involves several modifiable risk factors that could affect oncologic outcomes. This window is defined not just by the type of anaesthesia used but also by patient stress levels, inflammatory response, opioid requirements, and immune suppression—all of which interact with tumour progression pathways. The role of the anaesthesiologist in this context is evolving from a purely perioperative technician to an active contributor to long-term oncologic outcomes.

In-depth reviews of retrospective cohort studies have consistently shown an association between TIVA and improved outcomes in breast, gastrointestinal, and liver cancers. These associations are strengthened when paired with perioperative strategies aimed at

immunoprotection—such as minimizing opioid use, employing anti-inflammatory adjuncts, and ensuring optimal temperature and glucose control. Such bundles of care could form the basis of enhanced recovery pathways that are tailored specifically for cancer patients.

Another important consideration is the type and duration of cancer surgery. Surgeries that involve longer operative times and greater tissue trauma may induce stronger inflammatory responses, thereby exacerbating the pro-metastatic potential of volatile anaesthetics. In these contexts, the use of propofol may attenuate the systemic stress response and reduce postoperative complications. Furthermore, trials have shown that longer exposure to inhalational agents during complex surgeries correlates with increased recurrence risks.

The interplay between cancer immunotherapy and anaesthetic agents is another frontier of relevance. As immune checkpoint inhibitors become standard in oncology, their interaction with perioperative immune modulation assumes clinical importance. Preclinical studies suggest that propofol may preserve T-cell function and enhance responses to immunotherapy, whereas volatile agents may downregulate key immune pathways that are critical for checkpoint efficacy. This could have future implications in defining anaesthetic protocols for patients undergoing surgery in combination with immunotherapies.

As this evolving field moves forward, multidisciplinary collaboration among oncologists, surgeons, and anaesthesiologists is essential. Incorporating anaesthetic strategies that take into account onco-anaesthetic considerations, including tumour biology and stage, as well as systemic treatment plans may help improve the interface between perioperative medicine and oncology. Biomarkers—including but not limited to circulating tumour DNA, cytokine profiles, and immune signatures—could be integrated into anesthesia-directed research to also provide predictive information whereby we could better distinguish between patients most likely to benefit from TIVA or regional techniques from those who would derive no advantage (30).

Health systems also must consider the cost-effectiveness and accessibility of proposed anaesthetic interventions. TIVA, although potentially advantageous for survival, would require the necessary infrastructure, skill training, and protocols to be uniformly available, particularly in the setting of limited resources. From a policy perspective, cost-benefit analyses weighing TIVA versus volatile agents for long-term oncologic outcomes could provide insights.

These scientific advances should ultimately also be reflected in educational reforms. Anesthesiology training programs should ensure that future providers are aware of cancer biology and evidence-based techniques to decrease recurrence. Clinical pathways to implement this emerging evidence would be aided by guidelines and practice frameworks endorsed by professional societies.

Mechanistically, propofol has shown anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, and anti-proliferative effects in vitro and in vivo. It appears to inhibit cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), reducing tumour cell adhesion and angiogenesis [31, 32]. These properties may support immune preservation during the vulnerable perioperative period, maintaining natural killer (NK) cell cytotoxicity and reducing tumour cell seeding. Additionally, propofol suppresses hypoxia-inducible factor-1 alpha (HIF-1α), which plays a central role in promoting angiogenesis and metabolic reprogramming of cancer cells under hypoxic conditions [33].

Conversely, volatile anaesthetics such as isoflurane and sevoflurane have been associated with immunosuppressive properties. They upregulate HIF-1α and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and may impair dendritic and NK cell function. Some studies suggest these agents increase levels of circulating tumour cells (CTCs) following surgery and activate pro-metastatic signaling pathways [34]. While this does not confirm causality, it underscores the biological plausibility of anaesthetic-mediated effects on tumour recurrence.

However, regional anaesthesia has also shown oncologic benefits through several mechanisms. By inhibiting the transmission of afferent neural input and sympathetic arousal, regional blocks inhibit the stress response to surgery that is well established to suppress immunity. This can restrain catecholamine and prostaglandins release which promotes tumour progression. Additionally, regional techniques have been shown to decrease opioid consumption, which has been associated with effects promoting tumorigenesis via activation of the µ-opioid receptor [35].

Multimodal use of propofol-based TIVA combined with regional anaesthesia may confer synergistic protection. Studies assessing the epidural or spinal blocks alone or in combination with intravenous propofol show immune function preservation, decreased inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α), and improved oncological outcomes. But this is a space that needs solid trials in high-risk population (e.g., liver, lung, and pancreatic cancer resections [36]).

While there are promising signs, there are several caveats. Many studies are observational and subject to confounding and selection bias. The lack of uniformity in the definitions of recurrence and the varying lengths of follow-up periods add to the challenge of data synthesis. Such findings should be confirmed by future prospective, randomised controlled trials with a standard anaesthetic protocol, standardised endpoints, and long-term follow-up.

Stratification by cancer type is also essential. For instance, breast and prostate cancers may respond more favorably to regional anaesthesia due to the nature of surgery and immune dynamics. Gastrointestinal and hepatocellular cancers, by contrast, may derive more benefit from systemic immune preservation afforded by TIVA.

Moreover, patient-level factors such as baseline immune competence, tumour molecular subtype, and perioperative care—including pain management, transfusions, and infection risk—also contribute to recurrence and must be accounted for. Personalized anaesthetic plans incorporating tumour biology, comorbidities, and recovery goals may optimize outcomes.

In conclusion, a growing body of mechanistic and clinical data supports a possible link between anaesthesia technique and cancer recurrence. Propofol-based TIVA and regional anaesthesia appear to offer protective effects through immune preservation and inhibition of pro-tumour pathways. While not yet practice-defining, these findings should guide anesthesiologists and surgical teams toward more informed, oncologically sensitive perioperative care strategies., anti-oxidant, and anti-proliferative effects in vitro and in vivo. In contrast, inhalational agents may promote tumourigenesis via hypoxia-inducible factors and impaired immune responses. Regional techniques, particularly when combined with general anaesthesia, may confer advantages by attenuating surgical stress and preserving cellular immunity. Nevertheless, confounding variables and heterogeneity across studies make it difficult to draw strong conclusions. Future trials should stratify patients by tumour type, anaesthetic exposure, and molecular profiles to clarify these associations.

Emerging evidence suggests that anaesthetic technique may be a modifiable factor influencing cancer recurrence and patient survival following oncologic surgery. Total intravenous anaesthesia with propofol and regional techniques appear to support immune function and reduce perioperative inflammation, potentially lowering the risk of tumour progression. In contrast, volatile anaesthetics may impair immune surveillance and promote pro-tumour pathways. While these findings are compelling, they must be interpreted with caution due to limitations in current research. Future high-quality trials are needed to confirm causality and guide clinical practice. Anaesthesiologists can play a critical role in multidisciplinary cancer care by adopting evidence-informed approaches to improve long-term outcomes.

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